1. Courtesy

1. Courtesy
Review of actual business correspondence reveals that special attention should be devoted to assuring the courtesy of business communication. Effective writers visualize the reader before starting to write. You will want to consider your reader’s desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and probable reaction to your request. This step will enable you to develop your communication from the reader’s point of view.
You-Attitude
Writing with a you-attitude shows sincere concern for the reader. Emphasizing the reader’s (you) viewpoint rather than the writer’s ( I ) viewpoint demonstrates sincerity. Merely replacing a few I’s, we’s, our’s and my’s with you’s and your’s throughout a letter, however, will not guarantee the presence of the you-attitude. To establish a you-attitude, you must create a positive state of mind through your suggestions and decisions.
A you-attitude is more than simple courtesy or politeness. It hinges on demonstrating a clear understanding of the reader’s problem or question. If a reader feels that you are genuinely concerned about his/her problem or question, the overall impact of the message will be greatly enhanced.Incorporating a you-attitude into your message will help give them reader benefit, which shows the reader how he/she will benefit by complying with your request or announcement. Readers are more likely to comply if the benefits appear to be worth their time, effort, or cost. Even though the benefits of compliance may not be readily apparent to the reader, your message can be made much more effective by including reader-benefit material.Understanding some basic truths about human nature helps us humanize our business messages.
These truths are:
- People are self-centered
- People are defensive
- People are not perfect
- People expect courtesy
- People do the best they can
People are self-centered
Being self-centered does not mean egoistic and conceited. It means that people want to know what good they will get out of doing business with us. When a business executive receives mail, s/he asks two questions: what’s this and why me. Effective writers tell their readers how they will benefit from doing whatever they are asked to do.Readers are more likely to comply with your request if the benefit appears to be theirs.The first of the following two sentences got very little response when it was used in a collection letter; however, when the sentence was revised to include reader-benefit material, the letter was much more successful.
Change: Please send your cheque for the amount you owe.To: By sending your cheque for Rs. 5,000, you will be able to maintain your good credit reputation.Merely inserting the second-person pronoun you into a sentence does not necessarily assure a you-attitude or reader benefit. The first version of the text example lacks reader benefit, although it does contain the word you. The revised version, by mentioning “shopping convenience,” contains reader benefit.
Change: You will be glad to know that we are now open until 9:00 PM seven days a week.
To: For your shopping convenience, we are now open until 9:00 PM seven days a week.

Elements of Effective Written Communication

Because written communication plays such a significant role in our economy and in the daily routines of the vast majority of organizations, an understanding of the essentials of written communication is critical.

You must know what you want to say and how to say it. In addition, you must design your messages to portray exact meaning as well as create a favorable impression. Well-worded messages not only bring you and your reader closer together, but also make you appear more friendly, helpful, and interested.In order to choose the right words and sentences for your letters, you need to be familiar with the elements of effective written communication.
The elements are:
1. Courtesy
2. Correctness
3. Conciseness
4. Clarity
5. Concreteness
6. Completeness

we discuss one by one in upcoming slides 

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Strategies for Effective Oral Delivery

Volume
Listeners want to clearly hear a speaker without straining to do so and without being blasted out of their
chairs. A presenter who speaks too loudly may be perceived as bombastic, aggressive, or insensitive to
listeners. On the other hand, one who speaks too softly may convey the impression of being passive or
insecure.
It is commonly thought that. a point is emphasized by voicing it more loudly. The reverse is true. An
audience is more attentive to a point that is stated at a lower (but still clearly audible) volume. Emphasis
is added by lifting the pitch, slowing the rate, and/or changing the tone of voice. (Vocal emphasis is
further strengthened with appropriate visual cues.)
Rate
An average rate of speech is 140 words per minute. As with other vocal characteristics, the rate of speech
should be varied during a presentation. For emphasis, a speaker may periodically slow down to less than
100 words per minute to voice a point in a deliberate manner. To elevate the level of energy or quickly
convey a point of lesser importance, a speaker may occasionally accelerate the rate to more than 170
words per minute.
A consistently slow rate of speech conveys fatigue or disinterest. Flailing speech can suggest that the
speaker has difficulty formulating thoughts. Presenters who consistently speak at a rapid rate may be
perceived to be nervous, impatient, or hurried.
Tone
The quality of tone is a combination of pitch, strength, and character. Character refers to the sense or
meaning a particular tone conveys. For example, a tone of voice may be described as gentle, angry,
sarcastic, childish, or serious. The tone of voice with which a speaker expresses a point says more to an
audience than the words themselves. As with other vocal characteristics, tone also says something to an
audience about the speaker. A faltering tone of voice is perceived as timid or indecisive, a harsh tone of
voice as aggressive. A nasal lone lacks the depth that adds authority to a voice. A monotone or flat tone
that lacks variations suggests a lack of interest or energy.
Speech Patterns
The term speech pattern refers to any vocal trait that is habitual. Although usually learned behavior,
speech pattern are sometimes a reflection of a psychological or emotional condition. A person who
repeatedly voices the phrase like “you know" may have acquired the habit from a peer group, or the pattern
may signal that the person is nervous when speaking before a group.
Like the characteristics of vocal quality (pitch, volume, rate, and tone), speech patterns can either
contribute to or detract from a presenter's effectiveness.
Some speech patterns are very pleasing and add to the clarity and meaning of a message, others are very
distracting or muddle a message. The speech pattern with which presenters are most concerned arc inflection
articulation, fillers, pauses, and accents.

Strategies for Effective Oral Delivery

VOCAL CUES
A voice communicates a great deal more than words alone. A presenter’s voice is a potentially powerful
tool to make an oral delivery effective and impressive. Professionals whose careers depend on skilled
communication take seriously the need to develop positive and powerful vocal attributes.
The quality of a speaker's voice is determined by four characteristics: pitch, volume, rate, and tone. An
effective speaking voice is well modulated, meaning the pitch, volume, rate, and lone are altered to give
appropriate and interesting expression to the message. A voice that is pleasing and easy to listen to is
mellow, meaning it is rich in tone and sounds fully mature. It is moderate; the pitch is not too low or too
high, volume is not too loud or too soft, and the rate of speech is neither too fast nor too slow.
To add to the effectiveness of a delivery, the qualities of a speaker's voice should be varied and congruent
with the message. Vocal qualities should also be varied to provide contrast. In addition, since it is often
perceived that the nature of a person's voice reflects something of the nature of the person, a presenter
should develop and communicate with a steady, resonant, and mature voice.
Pitch
The term pitch refers to the degree of highness or lowness of a sound. Every voice has a normal pitch in
terms of what is '"normal" for the speaker. The norm for an effective communicator is a pitch that can be
raised a few levels without sounding squeaky and lowered a few levels without sounding grimly. Such a
range allows a speaker to vary pitch for contrast while maintaining a vocal quality that is pleasing to the
ear.
Pitch has a notable impact on how a presenter is perceived. In every species that makes audible sounds,
the young have higher-pitched voices than do grown adults. Consequently, a high-pitched voice is
associated with immaturity. An excessively high-pitched voice is shrill and unpleasant to listen to for
long. A person who speaks in a high-pitched voice will be taken more seriously if the pitch is lowered.
An effective presenter uses pitch changes to indicate a change in the message. At the end of a sentence,
dropping the pitch signifies a statement; raising the pitch signifies a question. For that reason, repeated
lifts in pitch ac the end of declarative statements create an impression of a speaker who is uncertain.
Occasional and appropriate variations in pitch can be used to accentuate meaning. Rapid, frequent, and
meaningless changes in pitch make it difficult for an audience to listen attentively, and may suggest that
the speaker is highly emotional or frantic.

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Modes of Delivery

There are four modes of Speech Delivery
Reading from a manuscript Reading from a manuscript is the most formal type of delivery. It is also an effective choice when you
want to have the greatest control of the wording of your speech.
You will probably use a manuscript when speaking on a highly sensitive topic for which it is important to
have precise wording. Or, if you have spent special effort embellishing your speech with stylistic
elements, reading from the manuscript will ensure that you speak the phrases just as you wrote them.
Often, however, reading your speech will rob the presentation of spontaneity and the conversational
dynamics that effective speakers strive to achieve.
To compensate for that, you will need to practice your reading to give it the feeling of being spoken for
the first time. Skillful manuscript readers will also make spontaneous changes in their speech at the
moment of delivery.
Reading from manuscript seriously limits your ability to:
1. exhibit a natural style,
2. maintain eye contact,
3. observe and evaluate feedback, and
4. adjust the messages.
Therefore, never use the written style just out of fear of facing an audience, of forgetting the material, or
of encoding messages improperly. Overcome that fear through practice and experience.
If the formality or complexity of an occasion demands the use of the manuscript, observe these important
procedures:
• Write a draft of the speech according to sound writing principles.
• Revise by reading the written speech aloud sentence by sentence and making adjustments
necessary to convert a readable piece into a speak-able piece.
• Type the revised manuscript in double- or triple-spaced, wide-margined form on only one side of
the paper, possibly all in capital letters.
• Practice reading aloud several times before a videotape camera, friends, or a mirror to improve
delivery, eye contact, etc.
• Mark the points of some of your important pauses, phrases, emphases, and other nonverbal cues
directly on the manuscript. Practice several more times.
• Apply all of the suggestions for good verbal and nonverbal presentations.
Presenting from memory
Unless you have had training and practice memorizing long passages of text, the memorized mode is the
hardest to pull off. Freed from a manuscript or notes, you are likely to have the added anxiety of
forgetting what you wanted to say.
A memorized speech can also sound "canned" and lacking in spontaneity. Some speakers, however, are
extremely skillful at memorizing. Others, who have presented the same ideas a number of times, will
memorize their lines whether they intended to or not. Each time they speak on that or a similar topic, they
can draw from memory.
The memorized speech may lead to the poorest delivery of all. Speakers must concentrate so completely
upon recalling memorized material that they do not make contact or observe, evaluate, and adjust to
feedback. Additional flaws exist in the memorized approach, which are:
1. the difficulty of memorizing more than a few paragraphs,
Communication Skills – MCM 301 VU
© Copyright Virtual University of Pakistan 55
2. the possibility of forgetting material during the speech, and
3. the difficulty to presenting a memorized speech in a no mechanical manner
Speaking extemporaneously
When you speak extemporaneously you are literally making up the words of your speech as you go. That
does not mean that you do not do preparation. Rather, as you rehearse you work from an outline or
speaker notes that remind you of the progression of ideas in your speech.
Because you are choosing the words at the spur of the moment, an extemporaneous speech is likely to be
very dynamic and sound spontaneous and fresh.
Choose the extemporaneous style all of the others. It has the advantages pf preparation, naturalness,
flexibility, spontaneity, and full interaction with the audience. To develop an extemporaneous speech:
• Develop the speech by first writing and revising an outline. Write only a few sentences – and
perhaps the opening and the closing.
• Place the outline or key words and phrases, possibly all in capital letters, on only one side of note
cards. Leave plenty of space around and between lines.
• Using the note cards only when necessary, practice speaking aloud several times before a
videotape camera, friends, or a mirror to improve delivery, sentence construction, eye contact,
etc.
• Avoid practicing to the point that you memorize a fixed pattern of words. Practice only you
know that you will speak in a coherent but spontaneous manner.
• Apply all of the suggestions for good verbal and nonverbal presentations.
Impromptu speech
The impromptu speech occurs with little or no time for preparation. The reduced chances for analyzing
the audience, organizing, and encoding require a fast-thinking speaker. When delivering an impromptu
speech, use these suggestions:
• At even a hint that you may have to speak, begin to apply the guidelines, even while walking or
turning to face the audience.
• Move the planning directly to the specific topic, objectives, and key points. Write them on paper
if you have the seconds necessary to do so.
• When first facing the audience, take a few seconds to form the first words silently before
speaking them.
• Watch for feedback to know when to repeat or clarify.
• Speak briefly, and conclude firmly.
• If appropriate, ask if the audience has questions.

Types of Speech

Informative Speech
Informative speaking offers you an opportunity to practice your researching, writing, organizing, and
speaking skills. You will learn how to discover and present information clearly. If you take the time to
thoroughly research and understand your topic, to create a clearly organized speech, and to practice an
enthusiastic, dynamic style of delivery, you can be an effective "teacher" during your informative speech.
Finally, you will get a chance to practice a type of speaking you will undoubtedly use later in your
professional career.
The purpose of the informative speech is to provide interesting, useful, and unique information to your
audience. By dedicating yourself to the goals of providing information and appealing to your audience,
you can take a positive step toward succeeding in your efforts as an informative speaker.
Types of informative speeches: Objects, processes, events, concepts
These categories provide an effective method of organizing and evaluating informative speeches.
Although they are not absolute, these categories provide a useful starting point for work on your speech.
In general, you will use four major types of informative speeches. While you can classify informative
speeches many ways, the speech you deliver will fit into one of four major categories.
Informative speeches about objects
Speeches about objects focus on things existing in the world. Objects include, among other things, people,
places, animals, or products.Because you are speaking under time constraints, you cannot discuss any topic in its entirety. Instead,limit your speech to a focused discussion of some aspect of your topic.
Informative Speeches about Processes
Speeches about processes focus on patterns of action. One type of speech about processes, the
demonstration speech, teaches people "how-to" perform a process. More frequently, however, you will
use process speeches to explain a process in broader terms. This way, the audience is more likely to
understand the importance or the context of the process.
Informative Speeches about Events
Speeches about events focus on things that happened, are happening, or will happen. When speaking
about an event, remember to relate the topic to your audience. A speech chronicling history is
informative, but you should adapt the information to your audience and provide them with some way to
use the information. As always, limit your focus to those aspects of an event that can be adequately
discussed within the time limitations of your assignment.

Informative Speeches about Concepts
Speeches about concepts focus on beliefs, ideas, and theories. While speeches about objects, processes,
and events are fairly concrete, speeches about concepts are more abstract. Take care to be clear and
understandable when creating and presenting a speech about a concept. When selecting a concept,
remember you are crafting an informative speech. Often, speeches about concepts take on a persuasive
tone. Focus your efforts toward providing unbiased information and refrain from making arguments.
Because concepts can be vague and involved, limit your speech to aspects that can be readily explained
and understood within the time limits.
Persuasive speech
Persuasive speech: A speech designed to change or reinforce the audience's beliefs or actions. The ability
to speak persuasively will benefit you in every part of your life from personal relations to community
activities to career aspirations. When you speak to persuade, you act as an advocate. Persuasion is a
psychological process in a situation where two or more points of view exist. The points of view may be
completely opposed, or they may simply be different in degree.
Persuasive speaking is complex & challenging. Audience analysis and adaptation is much more
demanding than in informative speaking. You should enter a persuasive speaking situation with a realistic
sense of what you can accomplish. If listeners are not strongly committed one way or another, you may be
able to move some of them toward your side.
If listeners are strongly opposed to your viewpoint, you are successful if you cause a few listeners to
reconsider their views.
A persuasive speaker must have a strategy to win the audience to his or her side.

Making a Good Speech

 Keep your audience in mind: Because your audience cannot "rehear" ideas, once you have stated
them, look for ways to help your audience easily follow your ideas.Speak slowly, vigorously, and enthusiastically. Be sure you enunciate your words carefully,particularly if you are addressing a large group. Maintain a conversational style. Talk with the audience,not at them.
 Use gestures to accentuate points. Move your body deliberately to aid you in announcing major
transition points. In short, avoid standing transfixed before your audience.
 Maintain eye contact with your audience. Doing so helps you keep your listeners involved in what
you are saying. If you look at the ceiling, the floor, the corners of the room, your audience may sense a
lack of self-confidence. Lack of eye contact also tends to lessen your credibility. In contrast, consistent
eye contact enhances the importance of the message. By looking at your audience, you can often sense
their reaction to what you are saying and make adjustments in your presentation if necessary. Be careful;
do not lock eyes with individual members.
 Do not memorize your presentation, and do not write your presentation. Otherwise, your speech will
sound as if you are reading it. Use brief notes, written on one page, if possible. Use colored pens to
highlight points. Avoid note cards and several pages of notes. If you suddenly forget what you are trying
to say, and if you have several pages of notes, you can easily lose track of where you are in your notes. If
possible, type the outline of your presentation on one sheet of paper. If you do forget what you are going
to say, a quick glance will usually refresh your memory.
 Rehearse your presentation until you are comfortable. Try walking around, speaking each segment
and then speaking aloud the entire presentation. Rephrase ideas that are difficult for you to say--these will
likely be hard for your audience to follow. Be sure to time your presentation so that it does not exceed the
time limit. Keep your presentation as short as possible. Therefore, avoid adding information to your
presentation (and your outline) as your rehearse.
 If possible, record your speech. Listen to what you have said as objectively as possible. As you
listen, consider the main issues of audience, purpose, organization, context, content, and style. Listen for
tone, attitude, and clarity. Is the tone you project appropriate for your audience and your purpose? Is each
sentence easy to understand? Are you speaking too rapidly? Are the major divisions in your presentation
easy to hear? Are any sentences difficult to understand?
 If possible, become familiar with the room where you will give the presentation so that you will have
some sense about how loudly you should talk and how people will be seated. Also check out for size,
temperature, cleanliness, and proper lighting.
 Try not to provide the audience handout material before you begin. To do so encourages your
audience to read rather than listen. If you must provide written material, be sure the material is
coordinated with your presentation. That way, you have a better chance of keeping your audience's
attention on what you are saying.
No matter what type of presentation you are giving, your ultimate success as a speaker and the success of
the presentation depends on your establishing credibility with your audience. Guidelines on planning,
structuring, and delivering the presentations are important because they are designed to build your
credibility with your audience. However, no amount of planning and organization will substitute for
practice, which builds confidence. Practice also enhances and displays your planning and the value of
your ideas.
Overcoming stage freight
Everyone experiences stage fright, speech anxiety, or fear of the audience. Surveys show that fear of
speaking in front of people is one of the greatest fears people have.
The following lists some techniques people use for coping with this freight:
Know the room. Be familiar with where you will speak. Arrive early, walk around the speaking area and
practice using the microphone and any visual aids.

PHYSICAL BARRIERS

These barriers usually relate to environmental factors that affect communication. In relation to the sender
or the receiver of the communication, these barriers are neutral. They are not originated by the sender or
the receiver.
Common examples include:
1. Noise may make hearing difficult.
2. Listener hearing loss.
3. The temperature is uncomfortably cold or hot.
4. The communication may be taking place where there is danger.
5. Distracting activities may be going on nearby.
Physical or environmental barriers most often begin at the start of the communication exchange. They are
usually fairly obvious and because they are neutral, there is not risk to anyone’s ego for either the sender
or receiver to mention physical barriers when they exist. It usually is a very simple matter to overcome
them once they are acknowledged.
Even though physical barriers are neutral, and even though listeners commonly initiate action to
overcome them, it is the sender’s responsibility to achieve understanding. It is, therefore, the sender’s
responsibility to initiate action to overcome physical barriers to achieve commitment from the listener to
respond as expected.
Barriers that stop you from communicating with people around you
Here is a list of barriers to communication, or reasons why we sometimes find it difficult to take the risk
and communicate our true attitudes and feelings to one another. Tick the ones you see as relevant in your
relationship.

•  Fear of appearing low in the listener’s eyes.
•  Fear of exposing your feelings and weaknesses.
•  Fear of hurting others or getting hurt.
•  Fear of being rejected, blamed, or condemned.
•  Fear of not receiving a positive response.
•  Fear of a potential conflict.
•  Fear of risking self-disclosure.
•  Fear of appearing self-centre.
•  Fear of appearing stupid.
•  Fear of not being taken seriously.
•  Fear of not getting the help you think you need.
•  Fear of ruining a good situation.

SENDER-MESSAGE BARRIERS

These barriers generally relate to style and content of communication, both of which originate with the
sender.
Examples of sender barriers include:
1. Sender has not decided or specified precisely what listener response is expected.
2. Sender incorrectly assumes the listener has adequate knowledge to understand the message.
3. Sender uses words and examples unfamiliar to the listener.
4. Sender continues talking when the listener’s attention has been distracted (i.e. noise,
uncomfortably cold or hot, other people, dangerous objects, etc.).
5. The sender may say the message in a way that turns of the listener or may even antagonize the
listener to cause a totally different message to come through than the one intended.
6. The 500 most commonly used words in the English language have 14,070 dictionary meanings.
They mean different things to different people.
7. More words are used than are necessary to convey the message, which forces the listener to make
conclusions about which words carry the real meaning of the message.
8. More than one issue is included in a single message, which confuses the listener.
9. Illustrations or examples used may not be appropriate to get the point across to the listener.
10. The sender may intentionally beat around the bush and never get to the point of the
communication.
Sender-message barriers start to develop before there is any attempt to exchange understanding with
anyone else. They continue throughout the exchange whether the exchange is written, spoken, or a
combination of both.
The title Sender-Message fixes ownership and responsibility for this barrier with the sender. Oftentimes,
there is a reluctance to deal with (overcome) this kind of barrier for the following reasons:
- Sender may not be aware of the barrier’s existence.
- Sender, in a supervisory position, may feel that the receiver is responsible for understanding.
- Senders may be aware of their existence, but not know what to do about it.
- Senders may be aware of their existence, but feel that the urgency is too great to spend sufficient time to
overcome it.
- Receivers may not be aware of their existence.
- Receiver may realize that a message is unclear or that the method or style of presentation is causing the
barrier, but hesitates to take a risk and mention it to the sender.It is the sender’s responsibility to achieve understanding and, therefore, the sender’s responsibility to take action to overcome sender-message barriers and achieve commitment from the listener to respond as expected. Sender-message barriers are by far the most common barriers and contribute to more communication failures than physical and listener barriers combined.

LISTENER BARRIERS

These barriers relate to the listeners mind set. Typical mind sets of listeners include not paying attention
or daydreaming. The listener generally exhibits resistance toward the sender and/or the message. Listener
resistance can also be characterized as uneasy communication, perhaps even confrontational
communication.
Examples of listener barriers include:
1. Listener jumps to conclusions.
2. Listeners tend to see and hear what they want to see and hear. This usually means they listen to
that which seems to agree with their own preconceived ideas
3. Listeners tend to reject any message that contradicts their beliefs and assumptions.
4. Listeners may have emotional problems that cause their minds to be preoccupied.
5. Listeners do not ask questions to clarify when they do not understand a point. They tend to fill in
with their own ideas.
Listener barriers that arise in situations where communication is taking place for the first time usually
happen by surprise after the exchange process starts. In situations such as disciplinary reviews, accidentreviews or review of inadequate performance, the receiver may feel resistance at the start of the exchange
process.
The title Listener Barrier fixes ownership of this barrier with the listener. Even so, it is the sender’s
responsibility to achieve understanding and therefore, the sender’s responsibility to recognize and take
action to overcome these barriers. Because the ownership of this barrier is with the listener, there tends to
be reluctance by the sender and receiver (listener) to deal with (neutralize) this barrier.
Following are some reasons:
- Sender may not discover listener resistance.
- Sender may be aware of listener resistance, but not know what to do about it.
- Sender may dislike or be disliked by the receiver.
- Sender may be aware of their resistance and not want to do anything about it.
- Listener feels resistance and does not understand why.
No matter what the cause of listener resistance or the reluctance to overcome it, it is necessary to
neutralize listener resistance to achieve commitment.

Barriers to Communication

Badly Expressed Message: Improper formulation and presentation of message can prove to be
detrimental to the growth of communication and therefore its impact on the receiver is sure to be negative.
As there is lack of comprehension on the part of the listener it leads to misunderstanding and subsequent
erection of barriers in the process of communication.
Loss in Transmission: While speaking or delivering an important point, part of the message might be
lost due to problems in the medium of transmitting the message. For example, speaking on the telephone.
It might happen that just when you wish to communicate an essential item of information disturbance in
the line might make the receiver miss out on an important part of the message. This would deprive the
message of the communicative impact.
Poor Retention: Poor retention either on the part of the sender or on the part of the receiver can create
problems or lead to misunderstanding. If it is the speaker he might posit contradictory points of view
which would often lead to a warped sense of understanding of the message. The receiver’s past or present
experiences with the sender prepare him for what is to follow. If ideas contrary to his expectations are
presented they create a sense of uncertainty in the mind of the receiver. Similarly if the receiver has poor
retention power he would, more often than not, get confused and this would lead to misunderstanding of
the message.
Inattentive Listening: Partial or marginal listening can distort the intent of the message. The receiver
could be paying heed partially to the spoken material and partially to his thought processes. In such
instances he is sure to misunderstand the intent of the spoken material. Listening is a process which
demands that full attention be paid to the spoken material. Any kind of noise or distraction may make the
receiver lose out on an important aspect of the spoken material. As a result of this, misunderstandings in
the process of communication are bound to arise.
Differing Status, Position and Self-expression: It is always easier to communicate at the peer level or
with friends. The primary reason for this is that the mental faculties or the levels of experience of the
speaker and the listener match. In case there is too much of a difference between the sender and the
receiver by virtue of their status or position or even experience which neither has attempted to bridge,
different frames of references would come to the fore. Trying to incorporate ideas posited in course of the
interaction within one’s own frame of reference would lead to discrepancies in the understanding of the
message. As a result of this, there arises a mismatch in the transmission and acceptance of ideas and
concepts floated.
Prejudices: Prejudice can also seriously impede the transmission of ideas. An unreasonable bias rejects
ideas without consideration. Although we usually relate prejudice to race, religion, and color, most of us
encounter it in a dozen other ways. It may be a simple but strongly held viewpoint (or perception) on the
part of the Chief Executive, or it may be the classic statement of the foreman: "Well, I've been here 28
years; we never tried it before, and I 'm sure it won't work now."
Of all the barriers to the clear communication of ideas, bias and prejudice are probably the most difficult
to eliminate. The usual answer is education, but that is a lengthy and sometimes frustrating job. Perhaps
a better way to overcome deep bias is to shoe people how they will benefit by following a specific course
of action. People can adjust their prejudices fast when their self-interest is at stake.
“I” Attitude: Too much usage of “I” can lead to an “I-syndrome”. Whenever we enter into any kind of
discussion it should be well-borne in mind that the co-interacting also needs to be included in the
discussion. If the “I-attitude” is changed to a “You-attitude” or “We-attitude” issues are going to get
relatively simplified. This would enlist the whole-hearted cooperation of the co-participant by inculcating

in him a feeling of being part of the entire discussion. The impression conveyed is that the speaker is not
leading the interaction or speaking from a higher pedestal.
Resistance to Change: Change is a process of life. One has to accept change. Similarly one needs to
change or reinforce the existing ideas in communication which is an ongoing activity. If fixed ideas are
entrenched in the mind and the receiver refuses to accept the change, positing of new concepts will be
ineffective. Being resistant to issues which are contrary to already existing ideas hampers the process of
communication.
Refutations and Arguments: Gearing oneself for refutations and arguments merely to score victory over
the speaker can divert the concentration of the receiver. Instead of listening attentively his interest will be
focused on attempts to prove the speaker incorrect. In the process of communication, discussions if they
are posited merely for the sake of making one’s presence felt in the course of communication.
Miscommunication can take a heavy toll of the participants who are interacting with each other. In the
corporate sector, the cost of miscommunication is high in terms of efficiency, time and money. It could
lead to indiscipline, misunderstanding, hostility and distortion of relationships. In instances such as these,
the level of work input is comparatively low and hence the output is also negligible. One is not able to
solicit the best out of the interact-ants or the participants. Hence, it is imperative that the moment
miscommunication creeps in; it should be rectified so that greater harmony in relationships at the work
front is maintained.

Nonverbal Communication

Another important element of the communication process is nonverbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is interpersonal communication through nonlinguistic means. In the verbal
communication process, the verbal and nonverbal messages need to be consistent with one another, when
they contradict with one another; the nonverbal message typically expresses true feelings more accurately
than does the verbal element.
The nonverbal element of the communication process is comprised of several factors including
appearance, facial expressions, eye contrast, gestures, touch, posture, voice, silence, time, and space.
Non-verbal communication is everything except your words.
Appearance
Appearance is one aspect of nonverbal communication that has important implications for both written
and verbal communication.
In verbal communication one’s physical appearance affects the message. Elements such as clothing,
hairstyle, overall cleanliness, jewelry, cosmetics, body size, and body shape transmit messages. A
person’s physical appearance can affect the impression others receive of his/her credibility, honesty,
trustworthiness, competence, judgment or status.
Facial Expressions
One’s facial area (eyes, eye brows, forehead, mouth, and chin) is more capable of communicating
nonverbally than any other part of the human body. The face sends messages about one’s happiness,
sadness, anger, frustration, disgust, fear, or surprise. In fact, we generally do not have to ask people if
they are happy or sad – their faces reveal their present emotional state.
Eye contact
While eyes play an important role in communicating emotions, eye contact is used in quite a different
way in the communication process. Establishing and/or maintaining eye contact signals that a person
desires to communicate – that the communication channel is open. Eye contact can also be used to signal
a person’s desire to be included in a conversation, as well as to make another person somewhat
uncomfortable by putting him/her under stress.
Breaking eye contact also sends several signals. Among these are the telling of an untruthful statement, an
uncomfortable with the communication topic or situation, a desire for the communication encounter to
end, or an acknowledgement of status difference between the sender and the receiver.
Direct eye contact is a compliment to most people and builds trust. But be aware of the customs of
people from other countries. It may be a sign of disrespect.
Eye contact is one of the most important aspects of dealing with others, especially people we've just met.
Maintaining good eye contact shows respect and interest in what they have to say.
Eyes can tell you a lot about someone, so watch eye movements when you ask someone a question. It is
usual that if someone goes de-focused or looks up, they are going into a memory or into imagination. If
they look down and to the right, they are going into a feeling. If their eyes move to the right or left, they
are often talking to themselves or listening very carefully. It's useful to pick up eye clues, because it can
help you know where another person is going in his thinking!
Eyebrow muscle draws the eyebrows down and toward the center of the face if someone is annoyed. If
someone is empathetic and caring during dialogue the eyebrows will not show the annoyed facial
grimace.
Gestures
The use of gestures in the verbal communication process can also add meaning to the message that the
sender is transmitting. While some gestures (clenched fist, four stomping) indicate anger, others can
indicate nervousness (foot tapping, finger tapping). Head nodding indicates agreement while head shaking
indicates disagreement. Head nodding also signals the receiver’s desire for the sender to continue talking.
Keeping one’s arms closed tends to signal uncomfortable ness while open arms tend to reveal openness
and acceptance.
The thumbs-up gesture is a positive sign in most of the world, but in some cultures it considered a rude
gesture.
Gestures do not have universal meaning in all cultures. For example, an “A-OK” gesture (circle made
with the thumb and forefinger) is considered by Latin Americans to be a sign of contempt.
The V-shaped hand gesture with the index finger and middle finger may mean victory or peace in the
United States, but in some countries it could be interpreted as an obscene gesture.
Shaking your head up-and-down means "yes" in the United States and left-to-right means "no." In some
parts of the world the meanings are just the opposite.
Touching
This involves the use of touch to impart meaning as in a handshake, a pat on the back, an arm
around the shoulder, a kiss, or a hug. Touch can communicate many different things, such as affection,
playfulness, hostility, decisiveness, solidarity, assurance and urgency, to name just a few. There are four
universally recognized aspects of touching, all of which communicate varying emotions and intentions.
The first is the professional touch, used, for example, by businesspeople, between a professor and his/her
students and two people meeting for the first time. The second is the social/polite touch, used by
acquaintances who wish to convey friendly but slightly detached appreciation and affection. The third is
the friendly touch, which could be used by close friends or close businesspeople and colleagues
congratulating one another on an accomplishment. The fourth and most intense touch is known as
intimate touch, which is usually reserved for couples expressing love and affection through kissing,
hugging, or caressing. The amount and nature of touching considered appropriate for the situation varies
from culture to culture.
Individuals from an English, German or Swedish culture tend to use touch less as a rule, and rely upon the
physical setting to set the tone of a given situation. However, those with Asian, African American, Italian
or Latino heritage incorporate a much larger amount of touch into their personal exchanges, using
elaborate, extended handshakes, embraces or even kisses to convey their affection and gratitude. Many
misunderstandings and much discomfort can arise from a situation that places two people from drastically
different cultures together. It is always best to attempt to adapt oneself as comfortably as possible to a
situation to decrease the possibility of personal insult and awkwardness.
Posture
The posture displayed by individuals in the communication process also transmits signals about a variety
of things, including status, confidence, interest, and openness. Higher-stature people often stand more
erect and hold their heads higher than do lower-status people. In a sitting position, however, higher-status
people are likely to have a more relaxed posture than lower-status people who tend to sit in a rather rigid,
erect position.
Self-confident individuals usually stand more erect than those lacking confidence. Those interested in a
conversation tend to lean forward toward those with whom they are communicating, while those lacking
interest may slump down.
etc

Improving Your Listening Skills

The success of many of our business activities depends on how well we listen. Studies show that
we spend about 80 percent of our waking hours communicating, and at least 45 percent of that time
listening. But although listening is so critical in our daily lives, it is taught and studied far less than the
other three basic communications skills: reading, writing, and speaking. Much of the trouble we have
communicating with others is because of poor listening skills. The good news is that listening efficiency
can be improved by understanding the steps involved in the listening process and by following some basic
guidelines.
How to Become a Better Listener
When it comes to listening, many of us are guilty of at least some bad habits. For example:
• Instead of listening, do you think about what you're going to say next while the other person is still
talking?
• Are you easily distracted by the speaker's mannerisms or by what is going on around you?
• Do you frequently interrupt people before they have finished talking?
• Do you drift off into daydreams because you are sure you know what the speaker is going to say?
All of these habits can hinder our listening ability. Contrary to popular notion, listening is not a passive
activity. It requires full concentration and active involvement and is, in fact, hard work.
The following tips can help you become a better listener:
Don't talk--listen. Studies show that job applicants are more likely to make a favorable impression and
get a job offer when they let the interviewer do most of the talking. This demonstrates that people
appreciate a good listener more than they do a good talker. Why is this so? Because people want a chance
to get their own ideas and opinions across. A good listener lets them do it. If you interrupt the speaker or
put limitations on your listening time, the speaker will get the impression that you're not interested in
what he is saying--even if you are. So be courteous and give the speaker your full attention.
Keep an open mind. Don't just listen for statements that back up your own opinions and support your
beliefs, or for certain parts that interest you. The point of listening, after all, is to gain new information.
Be willing to listen to someone else's point of view and ideas. A subject that may seem boring or trivial
at first can turn out to be fascinating, if you listen with an open mind.
Don't jump to conclusions. Many people tune out a speaker when they think they have the gist of his
conversation or know what he's going to say next. Assumptions can be dangerous. Maybe the speaker is
not following the same train of thought that you are, or is not planning to make the point you think he is.
If you don't listen, you may miss the real point the speaker is trying to get across. Listen "between the
lines." Concentrate on what is not being said as well as what is being said. Remember, a lot of clues to
meaning come from the speaker's tone of voice, facial expressions, and gestures. People don't always say
what they mean, but their body language is usually an accurate indication of their attitude and emotional
state. Ask questions. If you are not sure of what the speaker is saying, ask. It's perfectly acceptable to
say, "Do you mean...?" or "Did I understand you to say...?" It's also a good idea to repeat what the
speaker has said--in your own words--to confirm that you have under- stood him correctly.
If you must speak, ask questions. The goal is to get more specific and better refined information. To do
so, you will have to continue questioning your counterpart. Your questioning sequence will be moving
from the broad to the narrow, and eventually you will have the information to make the best decision. The
second reason to continue asking questions is that it will help you uncover your counterpart's needs and
wants.

Don't let yourself be distracted by the environment or by the speaker's appearance, accent,
mannerisms, or word use. It's sometimes difficult to overlook a strong accent, a twitch, sexist language, a
fly buzzing around the speaker's head, and similar distractions. But paying too much attention to these
distractions can break your concentration and make you miss part of the conversation. If outside
commotion is a problem, try to position yourself away from it. Make eye contact with the speaker, and
force yourself to focus on the message, not the environment.
Take advantage of your brainpower. On the average, you can think four times faster than the listener
can talk. So, when listening, use this extra brainpower to evaluate what has been said and summarize the
central ideas in your own mind. That way, you'll be better prepared to answer any questions or criticisms
the speaker poses, and you'll be able to debate much more effectively.
Provide feedback. Make eye contact with the speaker. Show him you understand his talk by nodding
your head, maintaining an upright posture, and, if appropriate, interjecting an occasional comment such
as "I see" or "that's interesting" or "really?" The speaker will appreciate your interest and feel that you
are really listening. Motivation is an essential key to becoming a good listener. Think how your ears perk
up if someone says, "Let me tell you how pleased I am with that report you did," or "I'm going to
reorganize the department, and you are in line for a promotion."
To get the most out of a meeting, speech, or conversation, go in with a positive attitude. Say to yourself,
"What can I learn from this to make me more valuable in my industry and to my company?" You might
be surprised at what you can learn, even from routine meetings and bull sessions at the water fountain.
Fight off distractions. When you are speaking or negotiating, try to create a situation in which you can
think clearly and avoid interruptions. Interruptions and distractions tend to prevent communication from
proceeding smoothly or may even cause a setback. Employees, peers, children, animals, and phones can
all distract you and force your eye off the goal. If you can, create a good listening environment.

Levels of Listening

1. Active Listening
Active listening is a special kind of listening. It is a process of sending back to the speaker what you as a
listener think the speaker meant—both in content and in feelings.
Active listening is less common but more beneficial and in order to get good grades, you have to be able
to really listen to what is being said in the classroom. The most practical reason for a college student to
improve listening skills is that good listeners are not only better students, but they also spend less time on
their studies and enjoy them more than do students who are poor listeners. Students who are attentive in
class and attend class regularly are far more likely to receive higher grades and to learn more.
Characteristics of Active Listeners
1. Active listeners are willing to give the speaker a chance to develop his or her ideas.
2. Active listeners are open-minded about people who look or sound different from themselves.
3. Active listeners can follow several methods of organization—even poorly organized material will be
listened to with some degree of tolerance.
4. Active listeners are likely to listen even more attentively when the material becomes difficult. It
becomes a challenge to them.
2. Protective Listening
Listeners may not listen to a speaker because they have learned to tune out certain kinds of stimuli.
Listeners become speakers, and speakers become listeners and the sequence goes on. As a listener, you
will sometimes hear negative and even hostile expressions aimed directly at you. While no one really
likes to be subjected to hostile remarks, you have to control protective listening so verbal attacks are
perceived without your having to defend or retaliate.
3. Partial Listening
Listening must be a complete process where all the communicative stimuli transmitted by the speaker are
acknowledged and evaluated. Responding to some of the stimuli while ignoring others will make a
listener miss important facts and points that are needed for clarity and understanding.
A speaker’s voice, mannerism, grammar, and pitch will increase or decrease the listener’s tendency for
partial listening. As a listener and a positive speaker, you should consciously control the urge for partial
listening. This will help create an environment that produces greater understanding, and, in turn, more
effective oral communication.
4. Preferential Listening
Listening that is directly affected by a person’s beliefs, interests, or emotions is preferential listening.
Just as people may see what they expect to see, listeners may listen for what they want to hear. Personal
background, experiences, habits, and family tradition will many times change or distort the speaker’s
intended meaning into what the listener really wants to hear. Miscommunication is usually the result of
preferential listening.
Types of Listening
1. Critical Listening
Critical listening is usually needed when we suspect that we may be listening to a biased source of
information. Critical listening is also associated with being able to detect propaganda devices employed
by a communicator.
In adjusting your critical listening, focus on the following guidelines:
• Keep an open mind.
• Avoid filtering out difficult messages.
• Recognize your own biases.
• Avoid uncritical listening when you need to make evaluations and judgments.
• Recognize and combat the normal tendency to sharpen.
• Analyze the audience and adapt the message to the listeners.
• Clearly organize the speech so that the listeners can follow the train of thought.
• What is the speaker purpose? What does the speaker want from the audience? Is the
overall, general purpose to inform or to persuade?
• An intelligent, active listener is aware of the many possible meanings of words and
attempts to place those words in the correct context.
• Can the speech survive tests of evidence and reasoning? Are the main points supported
by relevant facts and opinions? Has the speaker reasoned clearly and logically?
• Does the speaker seem to know or care about what he or she is saying?
• Are the speakers’ verbal and nonverbal messages consistent? Do the nonverbal messages
reinforce the speakers’ thesis?
• Does the speaker establish his or her credibility and behave in ways that enhance
credibility?
• Is the material presented relevant? Is there a point to the speech? (Or do you, the critical
listener, feel like saying “So what?” at the end?
• What is your overall impression of the speech?
2. Empathic Listening
As the term suggests, the listener tries to demonstrate empathy for the speaker. It can also be described as
listening “between the lines”. When we listen between the lines we heighten our awareness and
interpersonal sensitivity to the entire message a person may be trying to communicate.
Empathy is perception and communication by resonance, be identification, by experiencing in ourselves
some reflection of the emotional tone that is being experienced by the other person.
Empathic listening serves as a reward or encouragement to the speaker. It communicates your caring and
acceptance and reaffirms the person’s sense of worth. This style of listening seems to be most important
in terms of strengthening or improving a positive interpersonal relationship between the parties involved.
Empathic listening often requires the opposite frame of mind from that required for critical listening.
Empathic listening implies a willingness not to judge, evaluate, or criticize but rather to be an accepting,
permissive, and understanding listener.
Becoming an empathic requires focusing on the following guidelines:
• A greater emphasis on listening than on talking.
• Responding to that which is personal rather than abstract.
• Following the other in his exploration rather than leading him into areas we think he should
be exploring.
• Clarifying what the other person has said about his own thoughts and feelings rather than
asking questions or telling him what we believe he should be thinking, seeing, or feeling.
• Responding to the feelings implicit in what the other has said rather than the assumptions or
“content” that he has talked about.
• Trying to get into the other person’s inner frame of reference rather than listening and
responding from our own frame of reference.
• The speaker is more apt to keep talking (vs. defending, blaming, shutting down, or
withdrawing). This can build trust, intimacy, and relationships, over time.

Listening

Type of communication     Percent of time
Writing                                 11
Reading                               15
Speaking                             32
Listening                              42
We spend more time listening than we spend at any other method of communicating. College students
averaged 53 percent of their waking hours listening. Of the four communicating behaviors—speaking,
writing, listening and reading—listening was second only to reading as the least arousing of the four
activities. Listening is like physical fitness or wearing seat belts. Everybody knows it is desirable but
finds it difficult to do on a regular basis. Most of us are unable to give close attention to what’s being said
for more than sixty seconds at a time.
Listening is an active pursuit. It’s demanding, hard work. Most of all, when someone is truly listening, it
takes time away from the listener’s most important focus—himself.
Listening goes beyond hearing. It involves making a conscious effort to hear, to give heed, take advice.
Listening is the process by which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind.
Applying listening to business it is the conscious, active process of eliciting information, ideas, attitudes,
and emotions in interpersonal, oral exchange for the purpose of increasing the listener’s capacity or
planning and decision-making.
Involving your listeners in what you have to say is the key to effective communication. The speaker and
the listeners are interrelated. An effective listener therefore must assume some of the responsibility for
effective communication. Good listeners become good communicators, and skillful listeners learn from
others. Good listeners exert a positive effect on a speaker, helping to improve the speaker’s effectiveness.
Listening
When listening is mentioned, we think primarily of the act of sensing sounds. In human communication,
of course, the sounds are mainly spoken words.
Listening perceives sounds from the speaker, attaching meaning to the words, and designing an
appropriate response, which involves remembering what the speaker has said long enough to interpret
what, is meant. Listening involves grasping what the speaker means by seeing the ideas and information
from his/her point of view.
Listening is an active search for meaning. In listening, two people are thinking, sender and the
receiver. Truly effective communication can’t be a monologue in which only the sender is at work. To
persuade, inform, or change the listener, both parties—the speaker and the receiver (be it one or many)—
must be actively involved. So true communication must be a dialogue, an exchange between you and your
receiver. Two (or more) people actively engaged in the same period.
The Process of Listening
1. Receiving/Hearing
The first element in the listening process is hearing, which is the automatic psychological process of
receiving aural stimuli.Sound waves are received by the ear and stimulate neurological impulses to the brain. We place these
sounds in a meaningful order or sequence so that they may be recognized as words. We recognize words
in a pattern that constitutes a language, which then helps to convey the message from the communicator
to us.
Another factor in hearing is the speaker’s rate. The average speaker’s rate is between 100 to 150 words
per minute. However most of us are able to comprehend rates up to 400 to 500 words per minute.
Hearing is something that just happens when you open your ears or when you get within earshot of some
auditory stimuli.
Unlike listening, hearing begins and ends with this first stage of receiving. Listening begins (but does not
end) with receiving the messages the speaker sends. The messages are both verbal and nonverbal.
The English language retains two words which depict a similar auditory function: hearing and listening.
Hearing is the faculty of perceiving sounds. It is believed to be the first active sensory organ in human
beings, even before birth: it has been established that babies in the womb hear external sounds as early as
the fifth month. Interestingly enough, hearing seems to be the last sense to cease its activity before death,
and there are many examples of dying people who although cannot speak or see anymore, can still hear
what is being said to, or around, them. The fact that hearing is the first and last of our senses may induce
us to ask ourselves whether there is a specific reason why this is so. Indeed, it would seem rather logical
to interpret this as a natural circumstance that must have some significance for our cognitive system.
The fact that we are hearing does not necessarily imply that we are listening. If hearing may be defined as
the physiological function of our auditory sense, e.g. that we all have the possibility of physically
detecting the sounds of our environment, listening may be depicted as the psychological attribute which is
in action when we want to discern the sounds heard. Listening is, therefore, hearing the sounds of our
environment and responding to them actively. For this reason the definition of 'Listening Skills' implies a
cognitive approach to all the kinds of sounds we hear in our daily surroundings.
As we become increasingly familiar with the notion that listening, unlike hearing, implies an active
response to the sounds we hear around us, a new cognitive dimension opens up for us. We may begin to
realize the importance of such a skill in everyday life and the need to find new ways to promote it
effectively. Furthermore, by extending this awareness towards all auditory sources in our environments an
authentic revelation may take place in our life. Our cities, fields, woods are an immense source of all
possible kind of sounds, most of which we have never discerned before.
2. Filtering.
Filtering is the process of giving symbols meanings through the unique contents of each person’s mind.
3. Understanding. 

 understanding is the stage at which you learn what the speaker means.
4. Remembering.
Messages that you receive and understand need to be retained fro at lease some period of time. What you
remember is actually not what was said, but what you think (or remember) was said. Memory for speech
is not reproductive. Rather, memory is reconstructive.
5. Evaluating.
Evaluating consists of judging the messages in some way. At times you may try to evaluate the speakers’
underlying intent. Often this evaluation process goes on without much conscious thought. Evaluation is
more in the nature of critical analysis.
6. Responding
Responding occurs in two phases:
i. Responses you make while the speaker is talking.

ii. Responses you make after the speaker has stopped talking.
These responses are feedback. E.g. “I see”, “yes”, “uh-huh” etc. etc.

Communication Destination

The destination of communication is either internal or external. The ratio between internal and external
communication varies from organization to organization. As the size of the organization increase, the
amount of internal communication tends to increase at a faster rate than the amount of external
communication.
Internal Communication
Each of the communication mediums discussed earlier in the downward, upward, and lateral
communication sections is also classified as an internal medium. Interoffice memos, reports, and
conferences are the most commonly used internal mediums within the modern organization.
Effective internal communication—downward, upward, and horizontal helps increase job satisfaction,
safety, productivity, and profits and decreases absenteeism, grievances, and turnover.
External Communication
Because most modern organizations have close ties with various publics – in fact they often depend on
these publics for economic survival - external communication plays a significant role in their operations.
Examples of publics that organizations communicate with are consumers, stockholders, governmental
agencies, foreign suppliers, wholesalers, and retailers.
Types of media used to communicate externally are: letters, reports, stockholder reports, proposals,
stockholder meetings, telephone conversations, and conferences.
While informal reports tend to be used commonly within the organizations, formal reports are more
commonly use externally. Employees in many organizations are now finding that their responsibility for
report preparation is increasing.
Organizations that have stockholders hold annual stockholder meetings to conduct official business—
such as electing individuals to the board of directors—as well as to present information of interest to the
stockholders. These meetings, although comprised mostly of oral communication, also use some written
communication.
An increasing amount of organizational business is conducted over the telephone. Although the use of the
telephone should result in the effective use of time, many employees are now finding that the telephone
has been a fairly significant time waster, especially when several calls have to be made before the caller is
reached. Excessive amounts of small talk during phone conversations can also waste time. Especially
wasteful of time, human resources, and monetary resources is the practice of providing a written
document to confirm the substance of the phone conversation. When this happens, the primary reason for
using the phone in the first place—to save time—actually takes more time because of the duplicate effort
involved in making the phone call and then preparing the written documentation.
A certain number of employees in most organizations spend part of their time engaged in face-to-face
conferences with individuals outside the organization. Included among these individuals are purchasing
agents, sales representatives, upper-level managers, and department managers. Considerable good will
can be lost easily—which may be very costly to the organization and to the outsider—unless both parties
treat each other with courtesy and respect.

Communication in the Organization

Mediated communication
This level of communication occurs when two (or a few) people use some intermediate means for
carrying their messages. They do not communicate face to face and thus do not have direct feedback.
Mediated communication often uses a mechanical or electrical device to transmit or receive messages.
Examples include the telephone, closed-circuit television, radio, radar, and the communication satellite.
Mediated communication also occurs through letters, reports, forms, and interoffice memoranda.
Person-to-Group Communication
The person-to-group level involves one speaker and audience. The speaker usually faces the audience,
and the audience usually contains people with similar interests. A small, private person-to-group situation
often has some of the characteristics of interpersonal communication. However, for large public groups,
the person-to-group level lacks the benefits provided by interpersonal exchanges.
The traditional speaker and audience setting may include microphones, projectors, and tape player.
Mass Communication
Mass communication includes messages sent to large, public, dissimilar, anonymous, distant audiences
using some intermediate instrument of transfer. The instruments include electronic (for example, radio,
television, tape, and film) and print (for example, newspaper, magazine, book, pamphlet, brochure, directmail
campaign). The restricted opportunity for feedback is the most serious barrier to effective mass
communication.
The "mass media," as they are often called, have grown to include the print media of books, newspapers
and magazines, the electronic media of television, radio, and audio/video recording, and the new media of
computers and computer networks. While these media differ in many ways, they all share the
characteristics by which scholars define mass communication.
COMMUNICATION IN THE ORGANIZATION
Communication is used extensively in the managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing,
directing and controlling. Virtually every task that a manager performs requires the use of communication
in one form or another.

The nature of communication in the modern organization can be studied by examining the direction of
communication flow and the destination of the communication. While communication in the modern
organization flows downward, upward, and the horizontal, its destination can be either internal or
external.
Downward Communication
Downward communication flows from people at higher levels to those at lower levels in the
organizational hierarchy. The primary function of downward communication is to inform employees
about things important to them such as:

•  Information about their jobs
•  Organizational policies and procedures
•  Feedback about their performance Organizational goals and objectives

The types of downwards communication may include instructions, speeches, meetings, announcements,
memos, notifications, letters, hand-books, pamphlets, company newsletters and periodicals, bulletin
boards (notice boards) policy statements, and procedures.For downward communication some use written communication, others use oral communication.

Why is this needed?
When employees receive appropriate downward communication from management, they can be better
motivated and become more efficient.While the employees need clear job directions and safety rules, they also need to know facts about organizational strategy, products, and viewpoints on important controversial issues.Employees want to know about their benefits - health care, insurance, promotions, pensions, training,
work environment, retirement, etc.

In a way the employees, through their collective pressure, force their employers to be accountable for their decisions through effective downward communication.
Upward Communication
Upward communication travels from subordinates to superiors and continues up the organizational ladder.
Upward communication is extremely important, as upper management needs to know specifically about:
Production performance, marketing information, financial data, what lower-level employees are thinking,
and so on.The better the quality of information they receive, the more useful and effective it will be in their
decision-making efforts.Unfortunately, this flow is often hindered by people in the communication link who filter the messagesand do not transmit all the information, especially unfavorable news to their bosses.
Types of media used to direct information upward are reports, interoffice memos, supervisor subordinate
conferences, suggestion systems, and grievance procedures.Upward internal communication is becoming increasingly important day by day. Today many executives sincerely seek frank comments from employees, in addition to the usual periodic reports. Successful managers listen closely to opinions, complaints, problems, and suggestions especially when they are clearly and effectively stated. As a response to increasing global competition, some companies are developing new management styles, which make input form employees an integral part of important decisions affecting the company.
Lateral Communication
It includes horizontal flow of information, with people on the same or similar organizational levels, and
diagonal flow, with people at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. The lateral
communication is used to speed up information flow, to improve understanding, and to coordinate efforts
for the achievement of organizational objectives.
Effective lateral communication between peers is essential in organizations to solve problems, perform
job duties, prepare for meetings, listening to and making requests, writing notes and memos, and
discussing and writing about projects.
Most lateral communication is of an oral nature, invo

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication occurs when two (or a few) people talk face to face. Conversations,
dialogues, and small group discussions are interpersonal exchanges. Each person also operates
interpersonally during the exchange. Thus, an exchange with just two people involves at least three
communication elements – the unique thinking done by each person and the overriding process created by the interpersonal exchange.
For example, imagine that you accidentally met your friend after a long time. You had a brief chat with
him. But you think of meeting him again next evening. Your friend at the same time too thinks of having
another meeting with you, in the afternoon, as he is leaving by the evening flight. After some discussion
you agree to meet at the breakfast time as you have a busy schedule the whole afternoon. Behavior and Interpersonal Communication In its simplest form, interpersonal relations are the interactions between two or more persons. We keep coming in contact with other people for personal, professional, social or business reasons. Whatever the context, there is an interaction between personalities in all these situations. Our perception about each other is based on the displayed behavior. The environment in which personal interaction takes place is largely determined by the behavior of the parties involved. All behaviors are motivated. The motives however, may be known or unknown, clear or unclear,controlled or uncontrolled. The net result is the variety in behaviors. Behaviors determine the quality of interpersonal relationships by directly influencing every transaction in interaction. In the organizational context, interpersonal relations become extremely important for smooth functioning of the system, greater
coherence, and convergence of effort and minimization of conflict. To communicate well, we need to know our frames of reference and ourselves and to be able to assess other people. Only then can we hope to find the best ways in which to communicate effectively with them, both to pass information and build relationships. Some of the reasons we do not assess other people well are given below:
• We assume that people would behave the same way in every situation.
• We try too hard to put everyone into consistent categories.
• We are too influenced by first impressions.
• We are positively influenced where we have common characteristics with other people, e.g. same school, same function.
• We are too influenced by apparent negative points, e.g. if someone is not very good at short-term decision making, we might assume that he/she is not going to be good at long-term planning either.
• We make constant errors because of our own limited frames of reference and self-concept.

Interpersonal Needs
Finally, we engage in interpersonal communication because we need to express and receive interpersonal
needs. The three identified needs are:
1. Inclusion: the need to establish identity with others.
2. Control: the need to exercise leadership and prove one's abilities. Groups provide outlets for this
need. Some individuals do not want to be a leader. For them, groups provide the necessary control over aspects of their lives.
3. Affection: the need to develop relationships with people. Groups are an excellent way to make
friends and establish relationships.

Intrapersonal Communication

When you think, you use intrapersonal communication. You initiate, receive, and process messages
within yourself. You are playing both the roles of: sending & receiving. Human growth depends on this
internal communication. Through it you know yourself and develop your self-concept, self determination, and self-motivation.
For example, each morning you decide how to dress, what to eat, where to go, etc. This kind of internal
communication forms the foundation for the other four levels of communication. The word - "Intrapersonal" - means within the person. Intrapersonal communication processes happen inside of you. Some people equate these processes with thinking. Although thinking is part of the process, intrapersonal communication includes more than what we think. More importantly intrapersonal processes include the way we think and the way we communicate with ourselves. Intrapersonal communication affects the way we receive messages from others and affects the way we send messages to others.

Normally successful communication requires having an independent sender and receiver, who sens messages back and forth between them. This definition is currently challenged, there are some people who consider intrapersonal communication too useful to be discounted.
Whether or not intrapersonal communication is a valid form of communication, the following actions are considered intrapersonal communication:

• Dreaming (especially daydreaming and lucid dreaming)
• Talking to oneself. This action is normal, since often saying and hearing again helps a person retain information. It becomes abnormal when a person talks to oneself in socially inappropriate situations.
• Your internal monologue, any thoughts you have about what is happening around you.
• Gesturing while you think. 

Levels of Communication

There are five levels of communication:
1. Intrapersonal Communication
2. Interpersonal Communication
3. Mediated Communication
4. Person-to-Group Communication
5. Mass Communication
In Next Coming slides We discuss one by one Levels

The Communication Process or Cycle

 Many of the problems that occur in an organization are the direct result of people failing to communicate. Faulty communication causes the most problems. It leads to confusion and can cause a good plan to fail. Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another. It involves a sender transmitting an idea to a receiver. And effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the sender intends to transmit. Studying the communication process is important because you coach, coordinate, counsel, evaluate, and supervise through this process. It is the chain of understanding that integrates the members of an organization from top to bottom, bottom to top, and side-to-side. Let us look into the details and see: 

What is involved in the communication process?
The steps involved in this process are:
1. Idea: Information exists in the mind of the sender (who is the source). This can be a concept, idea, information, or feelings.
2. Encoding: The source initiates a message by encoding the idea (or a thought) in words or symbols and
sends it to a receiver. The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions of our faces are the message.
3. The Channel: The channel in the communication process is the medium that the sender uses to transmit the message to the receiver. Care needs to be exercised in selecting the most effective channel for each message. Even though both an oral and a written medium may be appropriate to transmit a particular message, one medium may be more effective than the other. To illustrate, let’s assume that an individual desires an immediate reply to a question. Although the message could be in either an oral or a written form, the oral medium most likely will be more effective because of the immediacy, if required.
In selecting an appropriate channel, the sender must assess the following factors, as the situation
demands:
-need for immediate transmission of message, (Fax instead of letter)
-need for immediate feedback, (Phone instead of fax)
-need for permanent record of the message, (Written rather than oral)
-degree of negotiation and persuasion required, (Personal meeting – face-to face)
-the destination of the message, and (Far flung area – letter only)
-the nature of the content of the message. (Has to be a contract –written)
In addition, the sender should take into consideration his/her skill in using each of the alternative channels, as well as the receiver’s skill in using each of the channels. Communication rarely takes place over only one channel; two or three even four channels are normally used simultaneously.
Example: in face-to-face interactions, we speak and listen but we also gesture and receive these signals
visually.
4. Decoding: It is the act of understanding messages (words or symbols). This is known as Decoding.
When the sound waves are translated into ideas, we are taking them out of the code they are in, hence
decoding. Thus, listeners and readers are often regarded as Decoders. During the transmitting of the message, two processes will be received by the receiver. Content and
Context.
Content is the actual words or symbols of the message which is known as language – i.e. spoken and
written words combined into phrases that make grammatical and semantic (meaning) sense. We all useand interpret the meanings of words differently, so even simple messages can be misunderstood (Are you going to give me or not?). And many words have different meanings to confuse the issue even more (You are smart.).
Context is the way the message is delivered and is known as Paralanguage - tone of voice, the look in
the sender's eye's, body language, hand gestures, state of emotion (anger, fear, uncertainty, confidence,
etc.). Paralanguage causes messages to be misunderstood as we believe what we see more than what we
hear; we trust the accuracy of nonverbal behaviors more than verbal behaviors. Many managers think they have communicated once they told someone to do something, "I don't know why was not the work done?...I told my Secretary to do it." As a matter of fact, the secretary misunderstood the message. Remember: A message is never communicated unless it is understood by the receiver. Question arises then, how do you know a message has been properly received?
5. Feedback: By two-way communication or feedback. This feedback will tell the sender that the receiver understood the message, its level of importance, and what must be done with it. So the feedback loop is the final link in the communication process. Feedback is the check on how successful we have been, in transferring our messages as originally intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved or not. The purpose of feedback is to change and alter messages so the intention of the original communicator is understood by the second communicator. It includes verbal and nonverbal responses to another person's message. There are five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations. 

1. Evaluation: Making a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the sender's statement.
2. Interpretation: Paraphrasing - attempting to explain what the sender's statement means.

3. Support: Attempting to assist or support the sender.
4. Probing: Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point. 

5. Understanding: Attempting to discover completely what the sender means by his/her statement.
Noise: The presence of noise can result in fairly significant problems in the communication process.
Unfortunately, communication is effected by noise, which is anything – whether in the sender, the transmission, on the receiver – that hinders communication.
For example:
o A noisy environment may hinder the development of a clear thought.
o Encoding may be faulty because of the use of ambiguous symbols.
o Transmission may be interrupted by noise in the channel, such as a poor telephone
connection, misprinted text, or maybe a typographical mistake.
o Inaccurate reception may be caused by inattention.

What is Communication

Communication is derived from the Latin word ‘Communico’ which means “to share”. Hence the
word “communication” means: the process of sharing. One may ask, sharing what? Obviously – sharing
information, which could be facts, ideas, thoughts, feelings, needs, etc. This sharing takes place from one
person to another so that it is understood. This process involves systematic and continuous process of
speaking, listening, and understanding. Therefore, Communication is a process, which involves sharing of information between people through a continuous activity of speaking, listening, and understanding.
Why is Communication Important? Communication is a learned skill. Most people are born with the physical ability to talk. But in order to speak well and communicate effectively you have to learn the art and improve upon your ability to talk. Speaking, listening, and our ability to understand verbal and nonverbal meanings are the skills we develop in various ways. We learn basic communication skills by observing other people and changing our behaviors based on what we see. We also learn communication skills directly through education, practice and constant evaluation of the responses we get from people around us. Importance of communication has always been realized in all times because it is the most vital
means by which people are connected together in the society. However, today communication plays a
crucial role in almost all aspects of life. Work in business, government or organizations are impossible
without communication. People have to communicate with each other, exchange information, make
decisions, talk about new ideas, plans, proposals etc. They also have to communicate externally with
foreigners and people of other races and languages. For a moment, turn your eyes inward and see how much of your waking hours you spend in communication. Nearly 70% – writing, reading, speaking, & listening. As a college student, 69 percent of your communication time is spent on speaking and listening. You spend 17 percent of your communication time on reading and 14 percent writing.
Don’t forget, therefore, that communication is inevitable in one’s life. Today, in this age & world, a
successful person is the one - who can communicate effectively. Pick up any newspaper and scan the jobs wanted advertisements. You will find that communication skills are one of the essential prerequisites in most of the occupations. Be it engineers, business managers, sales officers, operators, etc. Any vocation you choose- oral communication skills are identified as valuable for
both obtaining employment and successful job performance. Big corporations and multinational
organizations need better communication skills in their employees so that they are able to work in teams
and with people from diverse backgrounds.Remember we are living in a communications revolution; we are living in an age of increasing talk. When we have to talk, we might as well talk well, and talk wise.